Language scratchpad/Romlang scratchpad

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This page contains a language under construction.

Sound changes

The sound changes common to all Romance languages are the following:

  • Unconditional loss of /h/
  • Loss of /n/ before a voiceless fricative (with compensatory lengthening of the preceding vowel)
  • Loss of unstressed word-final /m/ (this may have caused compensatory lengthening)

The outcome of vowels is as follows:

Classical Latin Vulgar Latin Proto-West Romance
/a/ */a/ */a/
/aː/
/au̯/ */au̯/ */au̯/
/ai̯/ */ɛ/ */ɛ/
/e/
/eː/ */e/ */e/
/oi̯/
/i/ */ɪ/
/iː/ */i/ */i/
/o/ */ɔ/ */ɔ/
/oː/ */o/ */o/
/u/ */ʊ/
/uː/ */u/ */u/

The differences between */ɛ/ and */e/, and */ɔ/ and */o/, are neutralised in unstressed syllables. The Classical Latin diphthong /eu̯/ did not survive in Vulgar Latin.

Stressed vowels in open syllables and final syllables with a single consonant coda are lengthened. Unstressed vowels before hiatus become semivowels (I am not sure about */a/, though).

Vulgar Latin to Proto-West Romance

  • /w/ → /β/ (does not affect labiovelars)
  • /j/ → [ʝ] → [ɟ]
  • /z/ → [ʑ] → [ɟ]
  • Where /s/ is followed by a consonant, /e/ is inserted before the /s/.
  • /k/ → [kʲ] → [c] before front vowels
  • /g/ → [gʲ] → [ɟ] before front vowels
  • /sk/ → [skʲ] → [çc] before front vowels
  • [c, ɟ] → /t͡ʃ, d͡ʒ/
  • [çc] → /ʃt͡ʃ/ (this had different outcomes depending on the outcome of /t͡ʃ/; if the latter became /t͡s/ → /s/, then the result is /sː/, otherwise the result is /ʃː/)
  • /kʷ/ → /k/ before back vowels
  • /kʷ/ → [kᶣ] before front vowels (except *cinque "five" and related terms)
  • /l/ → [ɫ] before a consonant
  • /b, d, g/ → /β, ð, ɣ/ between vowels and between a vowel and /r/
  • /p, t, k/ → /b, d, g/ (also affects /kʷ/ and [kᶣ]) between vowels and between a vowel and /r/
  • Degemination of voiceless stops (reintroducing short /p, t, k/) between vowels and between a vowel and /r/
  • Geminate voiced stops become a nasal + stop sequence
  • /pl/ → /bl/ between vowels
  • /tl/ → /kl/ between vowels
  • /kl, gl/ → /ʎː/ between vowels
  • /ŋn/ → /ɲː/
  • /n(d)j/ → /ɲː/
  • /lj/ → /ʎː/
  • /rj/ → /rʲː/?
  • /sj/ → /sʲː/
  • /tj/ → /t͡sʲː/
  • /dj/ → [d͡zʲː] → /d͡ʒ/
  • [kᶣ, gᶣ] → /k, g/
  • /pt, ps/ → /tː, sː/
  • /k/ → /j/ before /t/ and /s/
  • /d͡ʒ/ → /j/ between vowels
  • /d/ is lost word-finally

Numbers in Proto-West Romance:

1 *únos, *úna, *únu *prímos
2 *dó?, *dúe?
*dóu?, *dói? 		*secòndos
3 *trés, *tré *tèrzos
4 *quátro *quártos
5 *cínque *quíntos
6 *sèis *sèistos
7 *sète *sètemos
8 *òito *oitávos
9 *nòve *nónos
10 *dèce *dècemos
11 *úndeci
12 *dóðeci
13 *trèðeci
14 *quatòrdeci
15 *quíndeci
16 *séðeci
20 *vígenti
30 *trígenta
40 *quáðragenta
50 *cínquagenta
60 *sèisagenta
70 *sètagenta
80 *òitogenta
90 *nónagenta
100 *cèntu
200 *docènti
500 *quingènti
1,000 *mílle

Notes on orthography:

  • Grave accent represents open-mid vowels; both it and the acute represent stress.
  • <c> represents /t͡ʃ/ before front vowels, /k/ otherwise (the former is also represented by <č>).
  • <h> represents /ɣ/.
  • <g> represents /d͡ʒ/ before front vowels, /g/ otherwise (the former is also represented by <j>).

I presume three declensional classes in Proto-West Romance; I am a bit unsure about the existence of the genitive and dative cases (here I assume they existed based on their existence in pronouns).

First declension:

Singular Plural
Nominative *-a *-as
Accusative *-a *-as
Genitive *-e *-áru
Dative *-e *-is, *-ávos

Second declension:

Singular Plural
Nominative *-os, *-u *-i, *-a
Accusative *-u *-os, *-a
Genitive *-i *-óru
Dative *-o *-is, *-óvos

Third declension:

Singular Plural
Nominative *-es, *-e *-es, *-a
Accusative *-e *-es, *-a
Genitive *-es *-u, *-eru
Dative *-i *-evos

The third declension may have irregular nominative singular forms (e.g. *òmo "man", stem *òmen-).

The pronominal declension had genitive singulars ending in *-(j)os (the *-(j)- indicates palatalisation of the stem) and dative singulars ending in *-i or *-wi; the definite article ancestors *elle and *epse, along with the demonstrative *este, had irregular masculine nominative singular forms.

First conjugation:

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Present *-o *-as *-at *-ámos *-ádes *-ant
Imperfect *-áva *-ávas *-ávat *-avámos *-avádes *-ávant
Past *-ái *-ásti *-áut *-ámos *-ástes *-áront
Subjunctive
Present *-e *-es *-et *-émos *-édes *-ent
Imperfect *-ásse *-ásses *-ásset *-assémos *-assédes *-ássent
Past *-áre *-áris *-áret *-arímos *-arídes *-árent
Imperative
*-a *-áde
Non-finite forms
Infinitive *-áre
Gerund *-ándu
Present participle *-as (*-ánt-)
Past participle *-ádos

Second conjugation:

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Present *-jo *-es *-et *-émos *-édes *-ent
Imperfect *-éva *-évas *-évat *-evámos *-evádes *-évant
Past *-wí *-wésti *-wét *-wémos *-wéstes *-wéront
Subjunctive
Present *-ja *-jas *-jat *-jámos *-jádes *-jant
Imperfect *-wésse *-wésses *-wésset *-wessémos *-wessédes *-wéssent
Past *-wère *-wèris *-wèret *-werímos *-werídes *-wèrent
Imperative
*-e *-éde
Non-finite forms
Infinitive *-ére
Gerund *-éndu
Present participle *-es (*-ént-)
Past participle *-edos

Copula:

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Present *són *ès *èst *sómos *èstes *sónt
Imperfect *èra *èras *èrat *erámos *erádes *èrant
Future *èro *ères *èret *èremos *èredes *èront
Past *fwí *fwésti *fwét *fwémos *fwéstes *fwéront
Subjunctive
Present *sén *sís *sét *símos *sídes *sént
Imperfect *fwésse *fwésses *fwésset *fwessémos *fwessédes *fwéssent
Past *fwère *fwèris *fwèret *fwerímos *fwerídes *fwèrent
Imperative
*ès *èste
Non-finite forms
Infinitive *èssere
Gerund *essèndu
Present participle *èsses (*essènt-)
Past participle ?

The copula is the only verb I know that retains the Latin future. Evidence of its existence is found in Old French (iert "one will be") and in Spanish (the form eres "you (singular) are", which replaced the expected *es).

Post-West Romance developments

Proto-West Romance Stressed Unstressed Word-final
Short Long
*/a/ /a/ /a/ /a/ /a/
*/ai̯/ /e/ /e/ /e/ /e/
*/au̯/ /o/ /o/ /o/ /o/
*/ɛ/ /e/ /je/ /e/ (zero)
*/e/ /i/
*/ei̯/ /i/ /i/ /i/ /e/
*/eu̯/ /ø/ /ø/ /o/ /o/
*/i/ /i/ /i/ /i/ /i/
*/ɔ/ /o/ /wo/ /u/ /u/
*/o/, */ou̯/ /u/ /u/
*/oi̯/ /ø/ /ø/ /i/ /i/
*/u/ /y/ /y/ (zero)

Non-final unstressed vowels (not including diphthongs) occurring directly after stressed syllables are unconditionally lost, while for non-initial syllables directly before a stressed syllable only /a/ (becoming /e/) and diphthongs are preserved.

Phonology

Consonants

Bilabial Labiodental Dental Postalveolar Palatal Velar
Nasal m n (ŋ)
Stop p b t d k g
Fricative f v s z ʃ ʒ x
Affricate t͡s (d͡z) t͡ʃ (d͡ʒ)
Approximant w j
Trill r
Lateral l

Vowels

Front Mid Back
Close i y u
Mid e ø o
Open a

Grammar

Nouns

First declension:

Singular Plural
Nominative -a -ai
Accusative -a -as
Genitive -is -ur
Dative -e -if

Second declension masculine:

Singular Plural
Nominative -u -i
Accusative - -us
Genitive -is -ur
Dative -e -if

Second declension neuter:

Singular Plural
Nominative - -a
Accusative - -a
Genitive -is -ur
Dative -e -if

Third declension common:

Singular Plural
Nominative -(e) -ei
Accusative - -es
Genitive -is -ur
Dative -i -if

Third declension neuter:

Singular Plural
Nominative - -a
Accusative - -a
Genitive -is -ur
Dative -i -if

Pronouns

Personal pronouns

First person Second person Reflexive
Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative jœ
jo 		nu
nu 		ty
ti 		vu
vu
Accusative mi
me 		nus
nus 		ti
te 		vus
vus 		si
se
Dative mevi
mev 		nuvis
nuf 		tevi
tev 		vuvis
vuf 		sevi
sev
Possessive
(Genitive) 		miu noitru tuu voitru suu
Instrumental mik nuik tik vuik sik

Only the personal pronouns have special instrumental forms (which may be reinforced with the preposition kun).

Third person:

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative ell
il 		elli
li 		ella
la 		ellai
lai 		ell
lu 		ella
la
Accusative lu lus la las lu la
Genitive lis lur lis lur lis lur
Dative ly
le 		lif ly
le 		lif ly
le 		lif

The reduced forms above also act as the definite article.

Demonstrative pronouns

  • Proximal: eit
  • Medial: es
  • Distal: akell
Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative eit eiti eita eitai eit eita
Accusative eit eitus eita eitas eit eita
Genitive eitis eitur eitis eitur eitis eitur
Dative eite eitif eite eitif eite eitif

Interrogative and relative pronouns

Interrogative:

Masc./Fem. Neut.
Nominative kes ke
Accusative ke ke
Genitive kys
Dative ky

Relative:

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative ki ki ke ke kuo ke
Accusative ke kos ka kas kuo ke
Genitive kys kur kys kur kys kur
Dative ky kif ky kif ky kif

Adjectives

First and second declension:

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative -u -i -a -ai - -a
Accusative - -us -a -as - -a
Genitive -is -ur -is -ur -is -ur
Dative -e -if -e -if -e -if
Adverb -ament
Comparative -jur (-jus)
Superlative -iimu (-iim)

Third declension:

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative -(e) -ei -(e) -ei - -a
Accusative - -es - -es - -a
Genitive -is -ur -is -ur -is -ur
Dative -i -if -i -if -i -if
Adverb -ement
Comparative -jur (-jus)
Superlative -iimu (-iim)

Comparative:

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative -jur -jurei -jur -jurei -jus -jura
Accusative -jur -jures -jur -jures -jus -jura
Genitive -juris -jurur -juris -jurur -juris -jurur
Dative -juri -jurif -juri -jurif -juri -jurif
Adverb -jus

Note that the -jus and nominative -jur forms use the stressed stem instead of the plain stem.

Some adjectives have irregular derived forms:

Adjective Meaning Adverb Comparative Superlative
buonu good bien meilur (meilur-) wodmu
malu bad mal pejur (pejur-) pieimu
muutu many muutu plyr (plir-) plyrmu
parvu, poku few menyt minur (menur-) mimmu

Numerals

Cardinal numerals

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Singular Plural Singular Plural Singular Plural
Nominative ynu
inu 		yni
ini 		yna
ina 		ynai
inai 		yn
in 		yna
ina
Accusative yn
in 		ynus
inus 		yna
ina 		ynas
inas 		yn
in 		yna
ina
Genitive ynis
inis 		ynur
inur 		ynis
inis 		ynur
inur 		ynis
inis 		ynur
inur
Dative yne
ine 		ynif
inif 		yne
ine 		ynif
inif 		yne
ine 		ynif
inif

The reduced form acts as the indefinite article.

Masculine Feminine Neuter
Nominative du duai du
Accusative dus duas du
Genitive dur
Dative duf
Masc./Fem. Neuter
Nominative tri
Accusative tris tri
Genitive triur
Dative trif

Verbs

First conjugation (e.g. amar "to love"):

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Present amu amas amat amamus amades amant
Imperfect amava amavas amavat amevamus amevades amavant
Future I amerau amerais amerait ameraimus ameraides amerent
Future II amery ameroiti amerœt amerœmus ameroites amerœrunt
Conditional ameraja amerajas amerajat amerajamus amerajades amerajant
Past amai amaiti amot amomus amaites amorunt
Subjunctive
Present am ames amet amimus amides ament
Imperfect amos amoses amoset amosimus amosides amosent
Past amori amoris amoret amorimus amorides amorent
Imperative
ama amad
Non-finite forms
Infinitive amar
Gerund amand
Present participle amas (amant-)
Past participle amadu

Endings:

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Present -u -as -at -amus -ades -ant
Imperfect -ava -avas -avat -evamus -evades -avant
Future I -erau -erais -erait -eraimus -eraides -erent
Future II -ery -eroiti -erœt -erœmus -eroites -erœrunt
Conditional -eraja -erajas -erajat -erajamus -erajades -erajant
Subjunctive
Present - -es -et -imus -ides -ent
Imperative
-a -ad
Non-finite forms
Infinitive -ar
Gerund -and
Present participle -as (-ant-)

With the exception of dar ("to give", 3s ind. past deiot) and eitar ("to stand", 3s ind. past eitediot), all first conjugation verbs have past forms in -ai-/-o-. All regular first conjugation verbs have only one principal part (past tense -ai-/-o-, past participle -adu).

Second conjugation (e.g. tenir "to hold"):

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Present tieinu tienes tienet tenimus tenides tienent
Imperfect teniva tenivas tenivat tenuamus tenuades tenivant
Future I tendrau tendrais tendrait tendraimus tendraides tendrent
Future II tendry tendroiti tendrœt tendrœmus tendroites tendrœrunt
Conditional tendraja tendrajas tendrajat tendrajamus tendrajades tendrajant
Past teny tenoiti tenœt tenœmus tenoites tenœrunt
Subjunctive
Present tieina tieinas tieinat teinamus teinades tieinant
Imperfect tenœs tenœses tenœset tenosimus tenosides tenœsent
Past tenœri tenœris tenœret tenorimus tenorides tenœrent
Imperative
tien tenid
Non-finite forms
Infinitive tenir
Gerund tenend
Present participle tienes (tenent-)
Past participle tenidu

By principal part:

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Present 3-u 2-es 2-et 1-imus 1-ides 2-ent
Imperfect 1-iva 1-ivas 1-ivat 1-vamus 1-vades 1-ivant
Future II 1-rau 1-rais 1-rait 1-raimus 1-raides 1-rent
Future II 1-ry 1-roiti 1-rœt 1-rœmus 1-roites 1-rœrunt
Conditional 1-raja 1-rajas 1-rajat 1-rajamus 1-rajades 1-rajant
Subjunctive
Present 3-a 3-as 3-at 4-amus 4-ades 3-ant
Imperative
2 1-id
Non-finite forms
Infinitive 1-ir
Gerund 1-end
Present participle 2-es (1-ent-)
  • 1: Plain
  • 2: Stressed
  • 3: Stressed + palatalised
  • 4: Palatalised

Third conjugation (e.g. čir "to move away from, to yield"):

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Present čiu čies čiet čimus čides čiunt
Imperfect čeiva čeivas čeivat čevamus čevades čeivant
Future I čerau čerais čerait čeraimus čeraides čerent
Future II čery čeroiti čerœt čerœmus čeroites čerœrunt
Conditional čeraja čerajas čerajat čerajamus čerajades čerajant
Past česi česuiti česiot česumus česuites česurunt
Subjunctive
Present čia čias čiat čeamus čeades čiant
Imperfect česus česuses česuset česusimus česusides česusent
Past česuri česuris česuret česurimus česurides česurent
Imperative
či čid
Non-finite forms
Infinitive čir
Gerund čeend
Present participle čies (čeent-)
Past participle čiesu

By principal part:

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Present 1-u 1-es 1-et 1-mus 1-des 1-unt
Imperfect 2-iva 2-ivas 2-ivat 2-vamus 2-vades 2-ivant
Future I 2-rau 2-rais 2-rait 2-raimus 2-raides 2-rent
Future II 2-ry 2-roiti 2-rœt 2-rœmus 2-roites 2-rœrunt
Conditional 2-raja 2-rajas 2-rajat 2-rajamus 2-rajades 2-rajant
Subjunctive
Present 1-a 1-as 1-at 2-amus 2-ades 1-ant
Imperative
1 1-d
Non-finite forms
Infinitive 1-r
Gerund 2-end
Present participle 1-es (2-ent-)
  • 1: Stressed
  • 2: Plain

Fourth conjugation (e.g. venir "to come"):

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Present vieinu vienis vienet venimus venides vieinunt
Imperfect veiniva veinivas veinivat veinuamus veinuades veinivant
Future I vendrau vendrais vendrait vendraimus vendraides vendrent
Future II vendry vendroiti vendrœt vendrœmus vendroites vendrœrunt
Conditional vendraja vendrajas vendrajat vendrajamus vendrajades vendrajant
Past veni venuiti veniot venumus venuites venurunt
Subjunctive
Present vieina vieinas vieinat veinamus veinades vieinant
Imperfect venus venuses venuset venusimus venusides venusent
Past venuri venuris venuret venurimus venurides venurent
Imperative
vieni venid
Non-finite forms
Infinitive venir
Gerund veinend
Present participle vieines (veinent-)
Past participle ventu

By principal part:

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Present 3-u 2-is 2-et 1-imus 1-ides 3-unt
Imperfect 4-iva 4-ivas 4-ivat 4-vamus 4-vades 4-ivant
Future I 1-rau 1-rais 1-rait 1-raimus 1-raides 1-rent
Future II 1-ry 1-roiti 1-rœt 1-rœmus 1-roites 1-rœrunt
Conditional 1-raja 1-rajas 1-rajat 1-rajamus 1-rajades 1-rajant
Subjunctive
Present 3-a 3-as 3-at 4-amus 4-ades 3-ant
Imperative
2-i 1-id
Non-finite forms
Infinitive 1-ir
Gerund 4-end
Present participle 3-es (4-ent-)
  • 1: Plain
  • 2: Stressed
  • 3: Stressed + palatalised
  • 4: Palatalised

For the second, third and fourth conjugations, the past tense and past participle form separate principal parts. There are three possible past tense conjugations, of which one is exclusive to the first conjugation and alar ("to go").

First conjugation:

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Past -ai -aiti -ot -omus -aites -orunt
Subjunctive
Imperfect -os -oses -oset -osimus -osides -osent
Past -ori -oris -oret -orimus -orides -orent

Second conjugation:

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Past -y -oiti -œt -œmus -oites -œrunt
Subjunctive
Imperfect -œs -œses -œset -osimus -osides -œsent
Past -œri -œris -œret -orimus -orides -œrent

Third conjugation:

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Past -i -uiti -iot -umus -uites -urunt
Subjunctive
Imperfect -us -uses -uset -usimus -usides -usent
Past -uri -uris -uret -urimus -urides -urent

If an ending beginning with -v- directly follows a consonant, then it morphs into -u-. If an ending beginning with -r- (but not the infinitive -r, which is generally pronounced with an epenthetic vowel after a consonant) directly follows a consonant, then it may undergo the following developments:

Stem Alteration
-m- -mbr-
-n- -ndr-
-s- -str-
-š- -štr-
-z-, -ž- -rr-
-c-, -č- -tr-
-l- -ll-

Irregular verbs

Copula (esr):

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Present sun es eit sumus eites sunt
Imperfect jera jeras jerat eramus erades jerant
Future I jeru jeres jeret jermus jerdes jerunt
Future II ery eroiti erœt erœmus eroites erœrunt
Conditional eraja erajas erajat erajamus erajades erajant
Past fy foiti fœt fœmus foites fœrunt
Subjunctive
Present sin sis sit simus sides sent
Imperfect fœs fœses fœset fosimus fosides fœsent
Past fœri fœris fœret forimus forides fœrent
Imperative
je eid
Non-finite forms
Infinitive esr
Gerund esend
Present participle eses (esent-)
Past participle eitu

Existential (fir):

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Present fiu fis fit fimus fides fiunt
Imperfect fiva fivas fivat fivamus fivades fivant
Future I firau firais firait firaimus firaides firent
Future II firy firoiti firœt firœmus firoites firœrunt
Conditional firaja firajas firajat firajamus firajades firajant
Past fy foiti fœt fœmus foites fœrunt
Subjunctive
Present fia fias fiat fiamus fiades fiant
Imperfect fœs fœses fœset fosimus fosides fœsent
Past fœri fœris fœret forimus forides fœrent
Imperative
fi fid
Non-finite forms
Infinitive fir
Gerund fiend
Present participle fies (fient-)
Past participle fydu

The existential and the copula share the same past tense forms.

To have (avir):

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Present au ais ait aimus aides ent
Imperfect aiva aivas aivat aivamus aivades aivant
Future I avrau avrais avrait avraimus avraides avrent
Future II avry avroiti avrœt avrœmus avroites avrœrunt
Conditional avraja avrajas avrajat avrajamus avrajades avrajant
Past avy avoiti avœt avœmus avoites avœrunt
Subjunctive
Present aja ajas ajat ajamus ajades ajant
Imperfect avœs avœses avœset avosimus avosides avœsent
Past avœri avœris avœret avorimus avorides avœrent
Imperative
ai aid
Non-finite forms
Infinitive avir
Gerund avend
Present participle avis (avent-)
Past participle atu

To go (alar):

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Present vau vais vait alamus alades vont
Imperfect alava alavas alavat alevamus alevades alavant
Future I irau irais irait iraimus iraides irent
Future II iry iroiti irœt irœmus iroites irœrunt
Conditional iraja irajas irajat irajamus irajades irajant
Past alai alaiti alot alomus alaites alorunt
Subjunctive
Present al ales alet alimus alides alent
Imperfect alos aloses aloset alosimus alosides alosent
Past alori aloris aloret alorimus alorides alorent
Imperative
vai alad
Non-finite forms
Infinitive alar
Gerund aland
Present participle alas (alant-)
Past participle aladu

To be able (pudir):

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Present puosu puodes puodet pudimus pudides puodent
Imperfect pudiva pudivas pudivat puduamus puduades pudivant
Future I pudrau pudrais pudrait pudraimus pudraides pudrent
Future II pudry pudroiti pudrœt pudrœmus pudroites pudrœrunt
Conditional pudraja pudrajas pudrajat pudrajamus pudrajades pudrajant
Past pudy pudoiti pudœt pudœmus pudoites pudœrunt
Subjunctive
Present puosa puosas puosat pusamus pusades puosant
Imperfect pudœs pudœses pudœset pudosimus pudosides pudœsent
Past pudœri pudœris pudœret pudorimus pudorides pudœrent
Imperative
puod pudid
Non-finite forms
Infinitive pudir
Gerund pudend
Present participle puodes (podent-)
Past participle puitu

To want (vulir):

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Present vuoilu vuos vuout vulimus vulides vuolunt
Imperfect vuliva vulivas vulivat vuluamus vuluades vulivant
Future I vullau vullais vullait vullaimus vullaides vullent
Future II vully vulloiti vullœt vullœmus vulloites vullœrunt
Conditional vullaja vullajas vullajat vullajamus vullajades vullajant
Past vuly vuloiti vuldœt vulœmus vuloites vulœrunt
Subjunctive
Present vuoila vuoilas vuoilat vuilamus vuilades vuoilant
Imperfect vulœs vulœses vulœset vulosimus vulosides vulœsent
Past vulœri vulœris vulœret vulorimus vulorides vulœrent
Imperative
vuo vulid
Non-finite forms
Infinitive vulir
Gerund vulend
Present participle vuoles (vulent-)
Past participle vuitu

Related to the above verb are the imperative forms nuli and nulid (which form a defective paradigm), which are used to form polite prohibitives (just as the imperatives of vulir are used to form polite imperatives). Its full conjugation is shown below:

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Subjunctive
Present nuila nuilas nuilat nuilamus nuilades nuilant
Imperative
nuli nulid
Non-finite forms
Infinitive nulir
Gerund nulend

To do (far):

Singular Plural
First Second Third First Second Third
Indicative
Present faču fais fait faimus faites fačunt
Imperfect fačiva fačivas fačivat fačuamus fačuades fačivant
Future I fatrau fatrais fatrait fatraimus fatraides fatrent
Future II fatry fatroiti fatrœt fatrœmus fatroites fatrœrunt
Conditional fatraja fatrajas fatrajat fatrajamus fatrajades fatrajant
Past feči fečuiti fečiot fečumus fečuites fečurunt
Subjunctive
Present fača fačas fačat fačamus fačades fačant
Imperfect fečus fečuses fečuset fečusimus fečusides fečusent
Past fečuri fečuris fečuret fečurimus fečurides fečurent
Imperative
fai faid
Non-finite forms
Infinitive far
Gerund fačend
Present participle fačes (fačent-)
Past participle fetu

Vocabulary

Numerals

Cardinal Ordinal Adverbial Multiplier
0 nyllu, nylla, nyll nylliimu nyllavič nylliblu
1 ynu, yna, yn primu ynavič, siem semplis (semplič-)
2 du, duai segundu, autru duavič, bis dublu
3 tri tercu trivič, tier treblu
4 qatru qartu qatruvič, qader qarblu
5 činki qintu činkivič qintublu
6 sis siitu siivič sisublu
7 siet siedmu siedvič sietublu
8 œtu itavu œtuvič œtublu
9 nuov nunu nuovič nunublu
10 dieč diežmu dievič diegublu
11 ynči ynčiimu ynčivič ynčiblu
12 duči dučiimu dučivič dučiblu
13 trieči triečiimu triečivič triečiblu
14 qatorči qatorčiimu qatorčivič qatorčiblu
15 qinči qinčiimu qinčivič qinčiblu
16 siči sičiimu sičivič sičiblu
17 zeššiet zeššiedmu zeššiedvič zešsietublu
18 zečœtu zečitavu zečœtuvič zečitublu
19 zežnuov zežnunu zežnuovič zežnunublu
20 vienti vientiimu vientiič vientublu
30 trienta trientaimu trientavič trientublu
40 qarenta qarentaimu qarentavič qarentublu
50 činqenta činqentaimu činqentavič činqentublu
60 sisenta sisentaimu sisentavič sisentublu
70 sietenta sietentaimu sietentavič sietentublu
80 œtenta œtentaimu œtentavič œtentublu
90 nunenta nunentaimu nunentavič nunentublu
100 čent čentiimu čentuvič čentublu
500 qiinenti qiinentiimu qiinentivič qiinentublu
1,000 mill (mill-, plural miila) milliimu millivič milliblu
10,000 myrias (myriad-) myriadiimu myriadivič myriadiblu

All noun-like cardinals (one thousand and higher) are neuter.

Time

time tempus n (tempr-)
second sekunda f
minute menyda f
hour ura f
day dia m
week sedmana f
month mize m (miz-)
year annu m
decade diegas f (dega-)
century sieil n
millennium millein n
day before yesterday autrieri
yesterday jeri
today woi
tomorrow deman
day after tomorrow poikras
Sunday suidi
Monday lyndi
Tuesday mardi
Wednesday merkuirdi
Thursday žoudi
Friday vierdi
Saturday sardi
January žanairu m
February fevrairu m
March marcu m
April abrile m (abril-)
May maju m
June žyinu m
July žyilu m
August austu m
September setembru m
October ituvru m
November nuvembru m
December dečembru m
season eitacu f (eitacun-)
spring primavira f
summer eitas f (eitat-)
autumn aduvnu m
winter ivern n

Colours

colour cuolur m (culur-)
white blanku, albu (rare)
black niru
red ruvru
orange aranču
yellow gauvnu
green virde
blue-green čeruilu
blue blavu
purple purpuiru
brown brynu
grey grizu
pink ruožu

Examples

/Syntax tests

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